Cisco IP Routing Protocols

The Application layer generally encounters problems pertaining to data security during transmission. To protect data from unauthorized access and hacking during transmission, the Application layer applies various encryption techniques. The types of encryption techniques are private key encryption and public ... [full story]

The Transport layer is the core of the OSI model, because it serves as a bridge between the lower and upper layers to ensure reliable data transmission. The Transport layer can encounter the following problems: Unreliable connection between source and destination ... [full story]

The main function of the Network layer is to deliver data packets from the source to the destination network using routers, switches, and bridges. The problems that the Network layer might encounter include: Overloading of a specific transmission route Inappropriate subnet topology Dependency ... [full story]

The Data-link layer of the OSI model provides the Network layer with a well-defined interface, groups the bits transmitted to the Physical layer into frames, identifies transmission errors, and applies flow control mechanisms that prevent a slow receiver from being ... [full story]

The Physical layer of the OSI model is concerned with the transmission of the stream of data in bits. Data transmission between networks takes place through the Physical layer. This transmission takes place using various transmission media, such as: Magnetic ... [full story]

Using the layered approach, you can troubleshoot problems pertaining to each layer separately. Let us understand the different problems that occur on each layer of the OSI model and their possible solutions. [full story]

The TCP/IP suite of protocols works in Layers 3 and 4 of the OSI model. TCP/IP is made up of two protocols: TCP and IP. TCP/IP is the protocol used for communication over the Internet. Besides working in Layers 3 ... [full story]

The Application layer is the top layer of the TCP/IP reference model. It includes both the Presentation and Session layers of the OSI model. The word application is used to define any process that ... [full story]

The Transport layer lies between the Application and Internet layers of the TCP/IP model. The two primary protocols associated with this layer are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). ... [full story]

The Internet layer lies immediately below the Transport layer and above the Network Access layer of the TCP/IP model. The operating protocol of this layer is Internet Protocol (IP). The Internet Protocol builds the foundation of the packet delivery system, ... [full story]

The Network Access layer is placed at the bottom of the TCP/IP model hierarchy. The functions provided by the Network Access layer include encapsulating IP datagrams into frames and mapping IP addresses with physical devices. All the processes in the ... [full story]

TCP/IP is the most widely used networking protocol on the Internet. Both TCP and IP work together to facilitate safe and fast delivery of data through a network. To increase the transmission speed of large blocks of data, the data ... [full story]

The Application layer is the uppermost layer of the OSI Model. This layer handles high-level protocols such as HTTP, FTP, and SMTP. The Application layer uses these protocols to communicate with the application on ... [full story]

The Presentation layer is responsible for the syntax and semantics of the data being transferred. The Presentation layer is concerned with all aspects pertaining to the presentation of the data packets being transmitted. It translates the data being transferred into ... [full story]

The Session layer is the network dialog controller that establishes, maintains, and synchronizes interaction among networks. The layer first establishes a session between the source and the destination networks, which may be either in half-duplex or full-duplex mode. The Session ... [full story]

The Transport layer enables delivery of data packets to the specific application running on the destination host. The Transport layer divides a data packet into data segments of uniform size, to which it assigns sequence numbers. Each sequence number identifies ... [full story]

The Network layer manages internetworking and communication across multiple networks connected through routers and gateways. The Network layer handles the delivery of data from the source to the destination host. In addition, it facilitates delivery of data packets across multiple ... [full story]

The Data-link layer enables node-to-node delivery of data in a network by converting bit streams received from the Network layer into manageable units. These units are called frames. A header is added to each frame to generate the physical address ... [full story]

The Physical layer transmits bit streams of data over a physical medium from one host to another. The Physical layer encodes bit streams of 1s and 0s to signals before transmitting data. In addition, the Physical layer decides the line ... [full story]

The OSI model is a collection of seven layers: Physical Data-link Network Transport Session Presentation Application Each layer performs a specific set of functions that are required to transfer data between hosts. In addition, to facilitate smooth data transfer, each layer provides services to the layer above ... [full story]

Networks are based on the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model of networks, which is a layered architecture used to design networks compatible with all types of operating systems. The OSI model contains seven layers, which are organized in the order ... [full story]

The advent of globalization has led to the need for interconnecting isolated LANs into a single network. Enterprises are now looking at sharing data and resources among hosts spread across different geographical locations. This has led to the concept of ... [full story]